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The young duke of the State of Jin (晋) who was posthumously given the title Duke Ling of Jin, Jìn Líng Gōng (晋灵公, ? – 607 BCE), has been known as a ‘ruler who does not deserve his title (bu jun 不君)’. His despotic behaviour was enumerated in the records by historiographers. For example, he levied heavy taxes to build more fancy palaces; he had the chef killed only because he didn’t cook his bear paws soft enough; and, when he was bored with shooting birds and animals in his ever-expanding parks, he whimsically indulged in shooting his ministers and pedestrians with catapult slingshots from his palatial terrace and enjoyed watching the victims suffering from the hazard and ducking the pellets.
image identification and story scene description by Dr <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/about-us/dr-yibin-ni/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Yibin Ni  </a>
Read more in Dr Ni’ research article ‘<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/blogs/commonly-misunderstood-images/how-a-massacre-in-ancient-china-influenced-european-literature-painting-and-theatre/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">How a massacre in ancient China influenced European literature, painting and theatre</a>’.

Duke Ling of Jin shooting pedestrians with pellets

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In the Buddhist legend, at the beginning there was nothing but water in the world. Vajrapani ordered his disciples to scoop the ocean to see what was hidden there. The sun appeared in the first scoop and Vajrapani fixed the sun in the sky to light the day. In the second scoop, there appeared the moon and Vajrapani placed it in the sky so that it can brighten the night. There might be a connection between this legend and a women’s leisure activity in ancient China, recorded on the surface of various forms of artworks. A well-dressed lady standing in front of a water basin trying to scoop the reflection of the moon in a garden setting during the full moon days, waited on by some maids nearby.

Scooping the moon from the golden basin

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Ancient literature shows that Laozi (老子, also known as Lao Tzu) served as the Keeper of the Imperial Archives of the Eastern Zhou court (东周, 770-258 BCE). He must have greatly benefited from the perk of the job &#8211; the easy access to the best stock of classics written on bamboo slips at the time and became so learned that even Confucius (孔子, 551-479 BCE), the paragon of the Chinese sages, consulted him several times on matters concerning rituals of mourning and funeral and spoke very highly of him.
The legendary meeting between Laozi and Confucius was first pictorially presented during the Eastern Han period (东汉, 25-220 CE), in which the two sages were usually bowing to each other with the precocious boy prodigy Xiang Tuo (项橐) standing between them. However, this early simple characterisation of the famous meeting was taken over by a new composition of the two literary giants surrounded by their own pupils and servants in late imperial China. One surviving early example attributed to the Yuan painter Shi Gang (史杠, active around 1352) staged the conference among huge jumbles of rocks in an austere landscape.
See images of Laozi on the signature buffalo <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/laozi-riding-on-a-black-buffalo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here </a>and more discussion about pictorial parody of Laozi riding an ox in this <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/blogs/culture-and-customs/appreciation-of-chinese-visual-art-depiction-of-laozi-the-personification-of-dao-tao-on-a-buffalos-back/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">blog.</a>

Confucius consulting Laozi

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The term ‘Kui Xing’ originally referred to the North Star (北斗 Bei Dou). As stated in the Historical Records by Sima Qian (司马迁 145BCE – ?) , ‘Kui is the first star of the Great Dipper constellation’. Therefore, Kui also carries the meaning of being the first.
Gu Yanwu (顾炎武 1613–1682), a scholar in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, wrote in his book ‘Records of Daily-Gained Knowledge’ (日知录 Rizhilu):
“The origin of the worship of Kui Xing by people today is unknown. Kui 奎 was the master of Literature, and therefore temples were built to worship him. However, he could not be portrayed accurately, and thus was changed to a homophonous name of ‘Kui 魁’. But even this was not easy to portrait Kui, so the character Kui 魁 was split into 鬼 (meaning ghost, demon or spirit) and 斗 dou (a vessel for measurement, also a pun for the Dipper Bei Dou) so that the image of Kui can be illustrated by a spirit lifting one foot and supporting a dou vessel.”
Legend has it that the writing brush he was holding was used to write the names of successful candidates in the imperial examinations. Once their names were written, their literary and official careers were guaranteed to flourish. Therefore, during the imperial examination era, scholars regarded Kui Xing as a deity of their great fortune.
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Related Pun Picture:
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/pun-pictures/you-will-certainly-come-out-first-in-the-imperial-examinations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">You will certainly come out first in the imperial examinations</a> 必定夺魁
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Related Figural Scene:
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/when-the-god-of-literature-kicks-an-ink-vessel-you-are-blessed-to-be-the-only-one-who-can-stand-on-the-head-of-a-dragon-carp/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">When the God of Literature kicks an ink vessel, you are blessed to be the only one who can stand on the head of a dragon-carp. </a>魁星踢斗,  独占鳌头

God of Literature

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As the deity who grants success in the imperial examinations, <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/god-of-literature/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kui Xing</a> 魁星 is revered as the God of Literature. The image of Kui Xing is often presented as a spirit holding a writing brush in one hand and a scroll or a tablet in the other. He is often seen standing on one foot while the other is kicking back towards an ink vessel (斗 dou).
During the Tang and Song dynasties, scholars who scored number one in imperial examinations would stand on the head of large <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/motifs-symbols/dragon/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dragon</a>&#8211;<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/motifs-symbols/fish/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">carp </a>reliefs on the steps in front of the imperial palace to receive the announcement of the ranking. Therefore, a person who can make it and <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/motifs-symbols/may-you-be-the-only-one-who-can-stand-on-the-head-of-a-dragon-carp/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">stand on the head of a dragon-carp is considered as a champion</a>.
When the figure of a scholar is replaced by Kui Xing standing on the head of a dragon-carp, its meaning is merged as well. The figural scene is blessing you to be the top scholar in the examinations.
Related Pun Picture:
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/pun-pictures/you-will-certainly-come-out-first-in-the-imperial-examinations/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">You will certainly come out first in the imperial examinations</a> 必定夺魁

When the God of Literature kicks an ink vessel, you are blessed to be the only one who can stand on the head of a dragon-carp.

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Laozi (Lao Tzu 老子) is a great ancient Chinese thinker, to whom a five-thousand-character book ‘Dao de jing 道德经’, or The Scripture of the Way and Virtue, has been attributed. He is regarded as the founder of philosophical Daoism (Taoism), daojia 道家, because of his profound insights to life and the world, and a supreme deity in religious Daoism (Taoism), daojiao 道教, and popular Chinese religious cults.
Legend goes that Laozi grew unhappy about the moral decay and decline of the society and decided to leave for the unsettled frontier in the west. A noble lie says that Yinxi (尹喜), the official in charge of Han’gu Pass (函谷关) on the border saw some purple clouds flying towards his direction, and then euphorically expected and welcomed the renowned master’s arrival. Yinxi managed to persuade the master to write down his wisdom before he began his new life as a hermit. The brief pamphlet, also named after its author as ‘Laozi’, enjoyed a long-lasting appeal, resulting in more than seven hundred commentaries devoted to it by men of letters throughout the long history of China.
See more images of Laozi on the signature buffalo <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/laozi-riding-on-a-black-buffalo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here </a>and discussion about pictorial parody of Laozi riding an ox in this <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/blogs/culture-and-customs/appreciation-of-chinese-visual-art-depiction-of-laozi-the-personification-of-dao-tao-on-a-buffalos-back/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">blog.</a>

Laozi exiting Han’gu Pass

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Laozi (Lao Tzu 老子), literally ‘old teacher or master’, is the well-known name for a great ancient Chinese thinker, to whom a five-thousand-character book ‘Dao de jing 道德经’, or The Scripture of the Way and Virtue, has been attributed. He is regarded as the founder of philosophical Daoism (Taoism), daojia 道家, because of his profound insights to life and the world, and a supreme deity in religious Daoism (Taoism), daojiao 道教, and popular Chinese religious cults.
The earliest images of the legendary figure can be traced back to the Ming dynasty (1368 &#8211; 1644) when he was typically portrayed as a geriatric riding on the signature buffalo, as are found on two hanging scrolls, one by the Zhe-school painter Zhang Lu 张路 (ca. 1464 &#8211; 1538) and the other spuriously attributed to Chao Buzhi 晁补之 (1053 &#8211; 1110), a Song-dynasty literary man. In the former, Laozi is holding a scroll in his right hand, presumably representing his seminal work. In the latter, Laozi is depicted as a stout character, which later became Laozi’s more formal persona.
Read more about Laozi&#8217;s famous events <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/blogs/culture-and-customs/appreciation-of-chinese-visual-art-depiction-of-laozi-the-personification-of-dao-tao-on-a-buffalos-back/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">here.</a>

Laozi Riding on a Black Buffalo

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One day during the Tang dynasty (618-907), Li Keyong (李克用, 856-908), the Prince of Jin (晋王), went out hunting with an entourage of dozens of soldiers, when he encountered a woodcutter in a quiet valley. The woodcutter told Li that The Flying Tiger Hill nearby was an ideal hunting ground. The prince told him that he had dreamt of a flying <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/motifs-symbols/tiger/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">tiger </a>the night before and wanted him to show his way there. They met a strong gust of wind when reaching the destination and, what was worse, the woodcutter disappeared. A gigantic tiger emerged from the bushes and started charging at the group.
The prince immediately drew out an arrow and shot at the tiger. The tiger let out a cry and jumped to the other side of a creek with the arrow on its back. There was a young man sleeping on the bank with a flock of sheep nearby. The tiger was pouncing on the sheep and woke up the young man. To the onlookers’ great surprise, the young man beat the tiger up with his excellent skills of martial arts. The prince joked with the young man, saying ‘You have killed my pet.’ On hearing this, the young man lifted the tiger and threw it across the creek together with the words ‘You can have it back.’
The prince was impressed by the young man’s extraordinary strength and learned that they both share the same family name ‘Li’. He invited Cunxiao (存孝), the young man, to be his adopted son, who later helped him to win numerous battles.
image identification and story scene description by Dr <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/about-us/dr-yibin-ni/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Yibin Ni </a>
Other story scenes related to the tiger:
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/yang-xiang-trying-to-throttle-the-tiger-to-rescue-her-father/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Yang Xiang Trying to Throttle the Tiger to Rescue Her Father 杨香扼虎救亲</a>
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/wu-song-slaying-the-tiger/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Wu Song Slaying the Tiger 武松打虎</a>

Li Cunxiao Slaying a Tiger

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‘Li Mi (李密 582–619) Hanging His Books on His Ox Horns’ is one of the inspirational self-improvement stories in ancient China. It was adopted in the famous Three-Character Classic (三字经 San Zi Jing), written in the 13th century. The primer served as children&#8217;s first textbook in elementary education for more than five hundred years until the late nineteenth century.
Li Mi was a war lord, politician, and poet during the end of the Sui dynasty (581–618). He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth because both his grandfather and father were from aristocratic families during the Northern Zhou (557–81) and Sui dynasties. He had a noble primary education and developed a good habit of reading. As a young scholar, he heard that the eminent scholar Bao Kai (包恺) was visiting Mt. Gou Shan (缑山), in Luoyang (洛阳), Henan province, and set out to follow him. He put a grass saddle on the back of an ox and used it as his vehicle for the journey. Not wanting to waste time on the way, he carried the Book of Han (汉书) with him. It is a history of the Western or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The multi-volume work was compiled by Ban Gu (班固 32–92 CE) with the help of his sister Ban Zhao (班昭 49–120 CE), on the basis of the work of their father, Ban Biao (班彪 3–54 CE). Li Mi held one volume in his hand and hung some of the volumes on the ox horn.
It happened that Yang Su (杨素 544–606), the Duke of Yue (越国公), was riding behind Li Mi on the same road. When Yang Su saw a young man reading on the ox back, he pulled the reins and slowed down the horse. When he approached Li Mi, he asked, ‘Why are you so hardworking, lad?’ Recognising this prominent figure in the country, Li Mi immediately got off the ox back to perform ritual kowtow towards him. Yang Su asked him about the book he was reading and was very impressed by Li’s knowledge and demeanour.
Later, Yang Su told his son Xuan’gan (玄感) that Li Mi was an extraordinary man and somebody he could rely on. Xuan’gan took his father’s words to heart. In 613 CE, Xuan’gan declared an uprising in Liyang (黎阳), near modern Hebi (鹤壁), Henan province, against the Sui emperor. He sent someone to Chang’an (长安) to invite Li Mi to be his counsellor.
image identification and literature research by Dr <a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/about-us/dr-yibin-ni/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Yibin Ni</a> 
Story Scene Differentiation:
<a href="https://tutuhaoyi.com/figures-stories/bing-ji-inquiring-about-a-panting-buffalo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bing Ji Inquiring about a Panting Buffalo 丙吉问牛喘</a>

Li Mi Hanging His Books on His Ox Horns

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Li Yuan 李渊 (566-635 CE) excelled at horse-riding, archery, and calligraphy as a young man. He was to be the future founder (reigned 618-626 CE) of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). Miss Dou was exceptionally smart and her father Dou Yi 窦毅, the governor of Dingzhou, was very particular about the quality of his future son-in-law. The family decided to erect a screen with two peacocks painted on it and announced whoever could shoot two arrows on each of the peacock&#8217;s eye would be qualified to win Miss Dou’s hand. Dozens of young men entered for the competition but left with disappointment because of failure in achieving the full score. Li Yuan as a later comer managed to hit the eye of each peacock with the two arrows and thus captured Miss Dou’s hand.

Figures & Stories